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Thesis

II Review of Literature

1. Socioeconomic

Education of girl children is a socially complex issue because the traditional approach to the International Political Economy does not address the basic needs of girls in the developing world. Those basic needs are the "building blocks or foundation for the national planning for investment, production and consumption." (Yansane: 1996, 23) These basic needs include education, shelter, security, health, water, sanitation and nutrition for all female children for the purpose of increased productivity and economic growth.

Many economic and sociological theories predict that "education increases women’s participation in the labor force." This prediction is premised on the notion that education favorably affects women’s willingness and ability to enter the wage labor market. Specifically, it is asserted that the increased schooling of females: (1) Raises their potential earning power, providing a strong incentive to seek employment. (2) Raises their occupational aspirations. (3) Changes attitudes towards women’s traditional roles in the household and in the workplace; and (4) provides them with the necessary credentials for employment in many jobs. (Bunwarree: 1997)

a. Symposium on Girls’ Education

In the attempt to create an international standard for providing basic education for all girl children, the purpose of the 2000 Symposium on Girls’ Education was "to continue the dialogue on core topics and issues of controversy in girls’ education and to develop implications for policy and practice." (United States Agency for International Development Office of Women in Development: 2000). The symposium was to validate and create micro approaches for the educational development of the girl child in the developing world. The Grameen Bank is one current example of traditional institution acting in a non-traditional way.

i. Grameen Bank

The Bank is bringing the Internet to rural Bangladesh through Grameen CyberNet, the largest Internet Company in Bangladesh. They have joined with Hewlett-Packard in an alliance to create an electronic-education system that will reach rural villages. The seventh of the 16 Decisions of the Grameen Bank states that "we shall educate our children and ensure that they can earn to pay for their education." This is most relevant to this project. Information Technology provides the right tool of communication and resources to meet the various challenges of the 21^st Century. (Grameen, 1992) The developing world is creating their own solutions to their problems of lack of access to education for all children.

Instead of a social security—welfare approach where food and loans are the key components to economic subsistence this paper argues for the need to educate all girl children as a means to improve literacy, self-sufficiency, self-esteem and awareness through web education. Current socioeconomic factors as well as the demographic indicators in many studies clearly show that there is an "inequality that deters the girl child from education in the developing world." (Symposium, 2000) The assumption is that by using a micro economic approach, creating equality between girls and boys, basic education will directly affect the local economy of the developing world.

ii. Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee

A lesson from the Canadian International Development Agency, which contributed to the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), demonstrates how aid money can successfully make a difference. BRAC began as a Non Governmental Organization in 1971 and operates two informal education programs. UNICEF holds up BRAC as a "superb example of how to provide effective, community-involved basic education for about $15 per pupil per annum." (The Progress of Nations, 2000) BRAC schools have "high attendance rates, low drop out rates, high rates of admission to formal schools subsequently and cost 25 to 50 percent less than formal schools. Perhaps their most innovative feature, however, is involving the community in the construction, staffing and class scheduling of the school." (BRAC Report 1990)

b. Globalization

i. Mauritius

Mauritius is an island nation located in the Southwestern Indian Ocean about 880 km to the east of Madagascar, its nearest and largest landmass. This country is an excellent case study of the cultural problems of some effects of globalization, human capital, and the influence of the western system of education. An additional problem for this society is that all 1.2 million people are descendants of African people, Indians, and Chinese, bringing their own languages, religions, and cultures. This created a "complex cultural, socioeconomic and political milieu." (Bunwarree: 1997)

Lets look at the case of Mauritius. Traditionally, socialization of girls in Mauritius were encouraged to pursue learning with things associated with the "female roles within the four walls of the home, whereas boys were directed towards outdoor activities." (Bunwaree: 1994) Many of the teachers interviewed in a study had quite a biased view of what girls’ roles should be. Gender stereotyping by teachers and textbooks is so strong that girls tend to internalize the roles assigned to them.

In the post-GATT period, Mauritius was transformed from a mono-crop dependent economy to a world-class garment and knitting producer. Its ability to solve its heavy unemployment problem and its balance of payments deficit have won it the name of ‘tiger’ in the Indian Ocean somewhat comparable to the East-Asian tigers. Yet the gap in education between girls and boys still looms large. (Bunwaree: 1996)

A new educational order based on including girls at a very early age in resource-poor Mauritius is vital to stop the waste of economic potential. A gender focus on girls will allow the country to develop its human capital and hence grow in the overall development of the country. Increasing participation of all citizens to the economic success on a sustained basis is an economic imperative. Only when social mechanisms are in place to protect girls will it be possible to empower and create the sustainable economic development the country seeks.

ii. Cultural influence on Education

Mass education became an issue when political power passed into the hands of the Indians. Steps were taken to promote literacy but not much had changed in the equality and access of education for girls. The educational system was still largely influenced by the social, economic and political restraints that existed in society. "People holding power were those who determined the content of what should be taught." (Bunwarree, 1997) In Mauritius, "the selection and organization of knowledge discriminate in favor of those possessing the cultural and linguistic capital which is required by the schools." (Bunwarree: 1997) This is very much in line with the thinking of people such as Young (1971), Carnoy (1974) and Carnoy & Sarnoff (1990) as they explain how dominant social groups legitimize their position by the organization and selection of knowledge and ensure maintenance of the status quo.

One solution to this important power struggle over people is to have the legal international standard of the Convention on the Rights of the Child play a larger role in the domestic educational reform. Human capital is not being sufficiently utilized enough in the least developed countries. The untapped "potential of women is even more pronounced." (Bunwarree: 1997) The differential participation rate of men and women on the labor market emphasizes this point.

The western model of development assumes "the free movement of labor and capital and free trade domestically and in foreign markets." (Yansane: 1996, 4) However, this western model of free trade does not take into account that a top down approach only further alienates and marginalizes girls and women by leaving them out of the benefits of the market. This paper agrees with the assumption that if girls are not seen to benefit the economy, their education will only focus on the traditional gender roles so they can take their right place in the village.

c. Gender Gap

It is important to note that there are other facts that therefore need to be taken in consideration in order to understand the overall gender gap in education as; preschool ability, school quality and out-of-school investments in human capital. There are various studies that show the relationship between "cognitive achievement and wage attainment in developing countries." (Boissiere, Knight and Sabot 1985; Glewwe 1990, 1992, and Alderman, Behrman, Ross, and Sabot 1996) The data coming from Alderman, Behrman, Ross, and Sabot 1996 in their paper published in the Journal of Human Resources "indicate a large and significant gender gap in cognitive skills in rural Pakistan, which presumably results in a larger gender gap in productivity and command in resources."

i. Biases

The large gender gap can also come from; parental biases in preferences that favor boys over girls, strong attachments to traditional gender roles that limit female access to high productivity sectors, activities or occupations. It also could come from the expectations regarding the total benefits of schooling for parents’ ‘investment choices’. Parents expect a higher rate of return from boys to support them in their old age. There is research that shows "the quality of education a girl receives in the classroom given these biases is definitely going to affect the outcome for girls." The claim is that as the available evidence suggests "family economic conditions are more important than school related variables." (Rao 1993, Haddad, Carnoy, Rinaldi and Regel 1990)

One can agree with the empirical literature and studies that explain the gender gap in education. To overcome the gender gap in education and "to achieve economic justice for rural women in the Third World, development must target projects that benefit women, particularly those in the subsistence sector." (Tickner: 1992, 94)

ii. Social issues and Gender

At the World Summit for Social Development, in Copenhagen 1995, governments committed themselves to accelerating the economic, social and human resources development in Africa (See Appendix VIII) and the least developed countries. The literature clearly shows the link to the gender gap of the education of girls and the deteriorating social and economic conditions of the least developing countries. It has been noted that "equitable access to education and health services, income-earning opportunities, land, credit, infrastructure and technology, as well as official development assistance and debt reduction, are vital to social development in Africa and the least developing countries." (United Nations Document: 2000, A/RES/S-24).

Social indicators in Africa show that "90 percent of countries in sub-Saharan Africa will not meet the year 2000 goals on child mortality. Life expectancy remained lower than sixty years in forty-one of the fifty-three countries during the period 1995-2000. The HIV/AIDS pandemic is having severe social, economic, political and security impacts in some of the hardest hit countries." (United Nations Document: 2000, A/RES/S-24).

In a rapidly globalizing economic world, Africa continues to be marginalized. In order to integrate Africa into the world economy it will take a lot more than the education of the girl, child. However, without the education of the girl child sustained economic growth and a final breaking of the cycle of social ills will not be resolved.

i. Empowerment and Gender

According to the feminist literature in most societies there is a huge gender gap in education. The factors that block access to education range from culture bias towards boys, lack of financial resources, perceived return on the educational investment of boys, and the role of girls in the society. Empowerment for women did not occur in the traditional model of macro economic reform. Any "attempt to express economics in the form of mathematical models gives it a mathematical sophistication which is deeply reductionist and totally inadequate for explaining the ambiguities and contradictions of the complex process of development." (Harcourt: 1994, 14) There is a need for economics to become linked to social issues like the education of girl children.

In breaking the vicious cycle of despair and poverty for women there has to be more evidence in the literature and in the field that educating girls will improve empowerment for girls/women. While it is recognized that there are many troubling problems in preventing girls from being educated few women are in positions of power. "The large numbers of girls still not educated with a larger percent that have to drop out after starting all mitigate this problem of lack of power for women." (UNICEF, OXFAM, 2001)

Individual empowerment for girls is making progress but is a long way off in becoming the international norm. The human capital issue needs to first address the basic educational needs of girl children. Then society should build capacity for girl children, which can account for the differences in needs from culture to culture. Empowerment must in fact be seen as equal opportunity for all citizens of a society.

Empowerment comes from re-directing the focus of teaching from a spoon-fed approach to one that centers on the child learning for him or herself. One can argue from the literature the importance of becoming more children centered in education. Pedagogy of learning is well established in the journals of education as well as tested in thousands of classrooms across the United States. Teachers can have collaborative and problem solving experiences with children as well as create a mentor/expert instructor teaching to make known the issue and importance of educating girls in the least developing countries through the use of the Internet.

This awareness in children and teachers as this paper argues will help to support grassroots building. That will create pressure for the need at the political level for a change in thinking and attitude about girl education. Using web technology supports "collaborative knowledge integration which includes tools that enable group thinking, problem solving and task orientation. Sharing data also offers the opportunity to share with a wider and more authentic audience." (Evard: 1996; Frederman & Edwards, 1997; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1991; Wideman & Owston: 1993) Empowerment does not come from the use of the Internet but rather from the action that results from the knowledge obtained.

The goal is to help guide students to "develop ‘community knowledge bases’ and "expertise instead of focusing only on individual student learning." (Computer-Based Learning: 1999, 10-11) Shared data also leads to larger and more accurate data sets. Sharing knowledge from primary sources written by experts allows students to develop the same skills. Armed with this knowledge, teachers and students can make rational and informed decisions on what actions they can take to help the inequity of education of girl children.

The Internet is an interactive tool that allows students to "be self directed, have access to content relevant material to facilitate a deeper integration of the material." (Epstein, 1997) To foster change starting at the bottom, the Internet provides the perfect tool to reach and empower educators and students as a viable option to solicit support with the aim to empower girl children that need it the most.

ii. Lack of Power

The situation for girl children in Latin America is slowly changing in overcoming obstacles to power for women. Chilean President Eduardo Frei describes "education and related issues as the backbone of our development." (Inter Press Service: 1998) At the Summit of the Americas, thirty-four countries assembled in Santiago Chile to create an Action Plan for Quality Education by the year 2000. Recognizing that globalization presents a challenge for education, integration in democracy will not be achieved unless " values are incorporated into education" says a report from the Chilean-based non-governmental organization, Corporation Participa. (Inter Press Service: 1998) True social and economic integration depends on changing the values of the men who are in control of the access for girl education.

The Declaration of the Summit states that "Education constitutes an indispensable element for achieving better levels of development within the current international context, based on the conviction that the true wealth of a country lies in the quality of its people." (Inter Press Service: 1998) Education for girls in the Third World may well be one of the best investments that a less developed country can make. Yet only 20 percent or fewer of women and girls are economically active in Latin America with the exception of Brazil. Data from 1974 as published in the International Labour Review, showed that the "higher the educational level in Latin America countries of a woman the more likely she is to participate in the working force." (Elizaga: 1974, 519) This showed true for women that have a higher number of children at home. Yet the gender gap still remains in labor and education for girls. It becomes self-evident that without training and education women cannot fully contribute to the national economic growth.

Lacking skills, girls remain dependent relying on the income of men, or controlled by male tradition and custom which dictates their opportunities. The typical "non socialist, undeveloped nations backs the education of boys over the education of girls." (Standing: 1974) Looking back at the literature over twenty five years it is easy to surmise that education has been a major determinant of the aspirations and income expectations of girls and women. Education does affect work activity and the ability for women to contribute and earn as equals. "Basic education, particularly for women and girls, would have a much more attractive rate of return numbers than investing in building and equipment." (Finger: 2000)

2. Education

1. United States

i. Globalization and Education

Recognizing the growing importance of education and its impact on girls in the global south, former U.S. Secretary of Education, Richard W. Riley said in a speech delivered in Washington DC that, "the growing importance of education is a new international development, and I do not see it going away. Every sensible leader recognizes that the wealth of a nation in the information age-the economic, social and cultural wealth-lies in its people and what they know and can do. Whether a country prospers economically depends largely on its human capital." (Ed.gov, 2000)

Secretary Riley quoted Tom Friedman as saying, "the biggest foreign issue is now the biggest domestic issue, education." In this era of globalization the Spanish saying "Saber es poder" knowledge is power is the correct thinking for the civil society of the United States. Secretary Riley advocates for a bottom up or local approaches by stating "it is my hope that every elementary and secondary school in the United States would establish a relationship with a school from another country."(Ed.gov, 2000)

The United States government as the superpower leader needs to promote the issue of girl education in the developing world at the United Nations. The global world cannot survive with "over 66 million girl children denied an education and one sixth of the world’s population illiterate." (UNICEF, 2001)

ii. Education and Development

All over the world education plays an important role in development. In the United States education is a top priority for Democrats and Republicans. In Great Britain the Labour party leads the way for education policy. Development and education have gone hand in hand. "Knowledge and learning has been revered by every great civilization’. "In this new era of globalization, literacy technology and critical thinking are the cornerstones of our children’s future success." (Symposium: 2000, 48)

Education always plays an important and significant role. Consider Kerala in the south of India where the literacy rate is almost universal. In Kerala the infant mortality rate is the lowest in the entire developing world. In America where women have not completed High School the median incomes are nearly 40 per cent lower than to those who have finished. Study after study all over the world "shows that investing in girls education helps to turn the vicious cycle of illiteracy, poverty, and high child mortality into what Treasury Secretary Larry Summers has called "a virtuous cycle of education, economic progress, and health." As we enter the 21^st century nearly "one billion people—one sixth of humanity—cannot read a book or sign their names." (Symposium, 2000) In 1971 the United States passed landmark legislation known as Title IX, which helped guarantee equal access to education. Other countries can break traditions and follow the United States legislative model.

Peru’s Minister of Education is another fine example of leaders committed to increasing the education budget as well as policies adopted to "ensure access to education for all children." (Symposium: 2000, 48) This bodes well for the girl child in Peru and will set the stage for other countries to take similar actions.

The literature on education and development indicates that the gender gap is not being adequately addressed. (Bunwaree, 1997; Jacobson, 99/00; Tickner, 1992; Harcourt, 1994 & Hurrell, 1999). Human Capital theory (Schultz, 1961; Karabel & Halsey, 1997) and Modernization theory (Lerner, 1958; McClelland, 1961; Inkeles & Smith, 1974) have little to say about the "attitudinal or behavioral differences that may result from the schooling of boys in contrast to the schooling of girls." (Bunwaree: 1997)

The basic assumption is that as the modernization process unfolded educational and occupational opportunities would grow and become more available to girls and women. This would eventually weaken the "traditional roles of women in the family and women’s overall status would ameliorate" The literature ties education to development and includes inequality in education for girls as an important factor of women’s low human capital potential. Zafiris Tzannatos proposes that there be three solutions to development and education; 1) Greater access of girls to education and of women to training, enforceable equal pay and equal employment opportunities legislation. 2) Laws that treat reproduction as an economic activity, and 3) Women are recognized as equal partners within households with a better accounting of women’s work to include invisible production." (Tzannatos: 1999, 551)

Looking back to the Marxist and neo Marxist theories of development (Amin, 1973;Carnoy, 1974; Frank, 1978) Bunwaree shows that these theories emphasized "the role of education in the reproduction of social and economic inequalities but did not have an gender focus in their analysis." (Bunwaree: 1997) In the 1970’s important feminist critiques of the models of development emerged.

Work that is gender oriented still hampers the relationship between the "socio-economic development overall and the changing status of women." (Boserup, 1970) Boserup argued that "women’s education lessens the negative impact of economic development on women’s status by increasing their access to urban labor markets." Research on women’s education generally focused on "inequalities to access to national educational systems." (Acker et. al, 1984) An analysis of the limited research on the long-term impact of women’s participation in the educational system showed that the predominant factor is labor force participation. Labor skills will be lost if half of the country’s human capital is not empowered.

iii. Culture and Development

Sharon Franz of the Academy for Educational Development argues that culture is a permanent obstacle to girls’ education. She cites the case of the "United States and the development of girls’ physical education programs in universities". (Symposium, 2000) Franz concludes that "the dramatic impact of legislation and education on culture and the roles of men and women in society", has changed the role of women in sport. The gender gap in American physical education and intercollegiate sports programs ultimately changed the "normative values of American culture in this field.

It is first necessary to point to the long history of women’s suffrage beginning with the modern movement of women’s rights with Elizabeth Cady Stanton and her Declaration of Sentiments in 1848 and Susan B. Anthony to the feminist movement of today. Millions of women over a hundred and fifty years in America have contributed to the historical change in culture that Franz cites as an example of culture’s ability to change as she says it does all the time.

Culture and ideology does not occur in a vacuum isolated from the political, social, economic factors and historical events occurring everyday. Shirley Burchfield of World Education says that many factors need to be considered in overcoming cultural obstacles in a society. This paper agrees with the statement that it is important to " improving a country’s overall social and economic development as that will increase enrollment for children, particularly girls." (Symposium, 2000)

One could infer that cultural influences would always be stronger in some people than others. But no one can state that culture overall is not a dominant feature and fact of life for human beings. A community approach based on economic improvement for women is more likely to produce change in behavior. The complexity and linkage between mother and girl child cannot be ignored when positing on the education of the girl child and education. When the mother’s life improves economically her daughter goes to school.

The answer then is a holistic approach to educating girls and women. That approach is most likely to yield a higher return from investments in girls education than a strategy that focuses solely on girls’ schooling." (Symposium: 2000, 28) Burchfield cites a variety of studies that argues for the combining of adult education and literacy programs with basic formal education for girls. That way it " provides mutual support for both girls and women and yields a higher result than girls education alone." (Symposium: 2000, 29)

The rationale behind Burchfield’s approach is well grounded in the literature. She states that: 1) A strong relationship exists between the mother’s education and that of her children. 2) There is a high correlation between the mother’s education level and the health of her family. 3) The number of female-headed households is increasing, and 4) women tend to spend income earnings on the family’s welfare. There is a need for more research on women’s education programs, including "those that promote basic literacy, and practical, market oriented skills." Adult education is necessary, but "adult education programs should not undermine basic education programs." (Symposium: 2000, 31)

According to the United Kingdom department of International development, "the impact of culture and development can even get past the think tanks devoted to development." They have stated that we do not always "acknowledge the cultural framework within which educational development occurs." (Insights Issue, 1999) The question rightly posed by David Stephens for the Center of International Education at the University of Sussex, asks, "are we alert to the interplay between the different domains of the home, the school, and the economy where policymakers and policy researchers focus their attention and intervene for the better?" (Insights Issue, 1999)

The relevancy to having a web-site that educates teachers and students in the developed world now takes on a more important urgency and significance. The report that came from a study by mostly Ghanaian researchers set out to explore reasons why girls drop out of primary school in Ghana and shows that "the realities of school and home life matter. It also matters how the culture of a society influences the economic life of a country." (Insights Issue, 1999)

The recent efforts of government agencies in Ghana to review and improve educational provisions for girls is now linked to this study that reports the actual experiences of Ghana’s women and girls. A key finding in the study "in relation to the home domain was that socialization of the child in her home compound affects her and her teachers attitude to knowledge." (Insights, 1999)

Furthermore it is relevant that the following facts were observed from the same Ghanaian study. "1) The cultural values of elders govern the quantity and quality of schooling girls can obtain. 2) Fathers’ support for daughters’ schooling is vital. 3) The traditional views on the role of women in society color girls’ school experiences. And 4) low expectations of the economic value of schooling for girls limits their choices." (Insights, 1999). Culture, debt burden, communication infrastructure, the gender gap in education which denies access are some of the social issues that need to be addressed in order to solve the problem of the economic disparity of the least developed countries. Culture prevents the developing of human capital as a universally implemented standard in the developing world and that lies at the heart of the education issue for girl children.

Dr. Philip Cook’s report prepared for the International Child Rights Education Institute emphasized, "education for all as the need for quality and rights based education was identified as one of the most potent protective mechanisms for children and families. This will give access to information and develop their potential with dignity."(Childrightseducation.org, 2001)

Beyond culture and biases there is theory to help create working models of development. Human Capital Theory is a method for estimating economic return to investment in education. The rate of return must take into account the biases that effect women’s earnings much more than men. "Women’s rate of return to education is significantly lower than men’s education in India." (Kingdon: 1998, 39) This helps to explain the gender gap in schools in India. But it does not explain or provide the means to overcome the biases. An educated and literate population that benefits economically it is argued, will want to engage more of its population, including women.

iv. Solutions

The solution to solving the problem of lack of education for girl children in the developing countries is to create a model of education that is in line with the thinking of the International Educational Community for the education of the girl child in order to build financial resources. The "estimated $8 billion a year needed to achieve universal primary education is still not forthcoming." (Symposium: 2000, 46) The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) Human Development Report of 1991 states that "funds exist for investment projects that can contribute to human development both within individual countries and internationally. Donor countries earmark only one-half of the aid that is essential for human development needs such as education and primary health care. A cut of 3 per cent a year in the industrial countries military spending would release $25 billion a year—a freeze on military spending in developing countries would free more than $100 billion a year." The report calls for the necessity for continued economic growth and redistribution of funds but it is not forthcoming. (Yansane: 1996, 44)

In Papua New Guinea in 1999 there was a different solution to the lack of resources as they celebrated its first National Girls’ Education day, by broadcasting over national radio and TV the importance of girls’ education. The media can play an important role in increasing the awareness on girls’ education. The Guatemalan Association for Girls’ Education is launching a national media campaign to not only focus attention on the importance of girls’ education, but also to get government officials, business leaders, and the community at large involved. This serves as a useful model to help the plight of the girl child. These facts are not meant to leave the impression that the focus and experiences of change are in the hands of government alone. The private sector makes important contributions as well. In 1998 as a result of the International Conference on Girls’ Education in Morocco, a campaign emerged called "One Bank-One School." (Symposium: 2000)

This program has commercial Banks sponsoring local schools. Leaders from the local community, the bank and the school come together to communicate the needs of the school. There are now six hundred banks committed to this program, that are improving the education of children in six hundred schools all over Morocco. Girls as well as boys are benefiting from this collaboration.

Progress has been made which speaks to the importance of educating girls. "In developing countries, the primary school enrollment for girls has increased by 50 per cent since 1960. In the poorest countries, it has more than doubled over the same period. Still 60 per cent of the girls that should be in school are not." (Symposium: 2000, 50)

It becomes apparent from these facts that there needs to be a more sound relationship between economic growth and human development. One of the most notable features of the 1991 United Nations Development Program report is its discussion of the Human Development Index (HDI). This is "defined as a measurement and ranking of a countries success, or lack thereof providing for the basic needs of its citizens."(Yansane: 1996 44) Yansane states that "a new global agenda is needed, that calls for human development which prioritizes girl education."

Culture in the developing world dictates how much a society engages learning for girl children. Education with a critical thinking methodology will not change the mindset of people steeped in traditional practice. Education for girls should respect different cultural perspectives but allow individuals the right to create their own understanding of the culture they live in. A critical thinking methodology in teaching education to girls will help them to understand the role they play and give them the analytical tools they will need to be equally accepted in society.

Having a legal framework based on the Convention of the Child as this paper posits, as a standard is only one step. "A model and goals that are universally accepted and grounded in the literature is an important aspect of providing the tools to ensure the outcomes that are advocated for by the current experts in the field of education for girl children." (Symposium: 2000, 44)

The following goals are a renewed emphasis on quality and systemic change with the focus on the child as an active learner. These are outlined in six steps. 1) Expanding and improving early childhood care and education. 2) By 2015 all children, with special emphasis on girls have access to and complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality. 3) All the learning needs of all young children are met with equitable access to appropriate learning, life skills and citizenship programs. 4) Achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015 especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults. 5) Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005 and achieving gender equality by 2015 with a focus on ensuring girls full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality. 6) Improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellence to all so recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy, and essential life skills. (Symposium: 2000, 44)

A volume of evidence shows that access to education alone does yield social benefits, but quality improvement on an incremental basis is still needed to further increase social benefits and private returns for girls. This must be compatible with the conditions and context of the particular country or community she finds herself residing in.

3. Development

a. Africa

i. South Commission

The South Commission argues, "that the countries of the South in their development efforts have overlooked the importance of social indicators." (Yansane: 1996:27) The South Commission in its analysis of the problems of the South has offered some solutions. The most relevant to the argument of this paper is to: "provide people with the opportunity to achieve their human potential and contribute to overall development efforts." (Yansane: 1996, 28).

Documenting that education for girls increases benefits in wages, health, child care and raising infant mortality rates, security and improvement to the economy does not take away the reality of traditional attitudes of men around the world. There are also factors that came as a direct result of colonialization. As Samir Amin’s studies illustrate, "that the elite created in Africa and elsewhere as a result of independence is relatively wealthy in land, resources, and privileges." This "elite benefit from their dependence on major world financial centers. Thus exacerbating the state of inequality and poverty in the Third World especially Africa." (Yansane: 1996, 8-9)

The immense complexity of the economic, political, social, cultural and civil problems that face the developing world particularly Africa (See Appendix VIII) make it impossible to have a one-dimensional solution for education policy. The layers of difficulty in achieving social change can only be best addressed at the local level with the education of girls. "If all the children of primary school age were to receive a good quality basic education lasting for a minimum of four years, the problem of illiteracy would be resolved in the space of a single generation." (Watkins: 1999, 9) Reality in achieving goals needs to exceed the "pledges of the developed countries to have greater development cooperation to achieve the goals set at international summits during the 1990’s." Social and economic factors must be considered in every instance of cooperation to obtain sustainable development. (OXFAM, 2001)

ii. Macro Approach

It is first important to look at a brief historical overview of the literature in order to find a current place in the theories and literature on education and development today. Whether one looks at Adam Smith and the Wealth of Nations, Laissez-faire theorists, Keynesian economics, dependency thinkers--Immanuel Wallerstein or Samir Amin or finally to Marxist and neo-Marxists it is vital that the analysis of education in the social and economic inequalities have a gender focus.

According to David Mitrany "the world of the twentieth century was characterized by growing numbers of technical issues that could be resolved only by cooperative action across state boundaries." (Dougherty, Pfaltzgraff: 1997, 422) Today’s developing world needs these educational and developmental specialists to work on solutions at the local level starting with the girl individual. The allocation of resources is not an area that economists are open to resolve when concerning the basic education needs of the girl child in the developing world. Given the cultural, historical depth of feeling it is unlikely that Mitrany’s theory could help to explain the micro approach needed to understand the ‘technical issues’ of resource allocation in the developing world. "Men are more likely to have access to resources and to earn cash wages for their work. This gender bias is a fundamental cause of poverty because in its various forms it prevents hundreds of millions of women from obtaining the education, training, health services, child care, and legal status needed to escape poverty." (Jacobson: 99/00, 207) Jacobson also make the point that women depend on children for social status and economic security.

Literacy alone without the corresponding changes in the social life of a village will not improve the total life of girl children. It does however keep her alive with food and that is a very important victory and first step for child advocates everywhere. There are deeper influences at work that limit a girl child’s access to education. "Cultural and institutional behavior patterns are not considered in macro economic models." (Yansane: 1996,16).

One could also add to this statement that the educational concerns for a basic education as a means to foster an economic functioning and literate society are not present. The important factor of the equity of providing resources for women and men, boys and girls are also excluded from the macro approach. Macro economics models also assumes that what is good for the growth of the economy is good for the poor and that the trickle down theory functions quite smoothly.

The macro view is that international trade arrangements benefit both the developed and developing worlds. The reality is quite different. Whyte and Boynton point out "now that growth theories that were once widely accepted and that confidently predicted broad based improvements in living standards in less developed countries are in question, practitioners, researchers and scholars in all disciplines have been groping for new definitions and new approaches to development." (Yansane: 1996, 17) They go on to advocate that economic development along with technological progress must be designed and implemented as to directly benefit the great majority of rural people. One would add that the initial focus be on the education of the girl child as the means to this new definition and approach to economic development.

While one can agree on the importance of development as a vehicle for change it cannot add to the overall social development if education that is gender neutral is not included. Education is an important piece of the overall picture of development in order to break the cycle of poverty for girls and women. The famous cliché location, location, location can be applied to the importance of education for the girl child. As it must be education, education, education for all actors to embrace, in all sectors of the political, economic, social and cultural spheres of influence that impact on a global or local level.

iii. Micro Approach

There are five basic themes then that emerge from feminist and development literature that when presented as a whole help to explain as well as offer solutions to breaking the pattern of poverty in developing worlds. The first is looking at the international political economy and the macro neo-liberal model of approach to development as epitomized by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. It can be argued that they have failed because they have not implemented a consistent gender sensitive approach to the empowerment of women with sustainable development. The second theme is the inequalities and biases towards women. This looks at the status of women in development without looking first at the social complexity and lack of basic needs and education that prevents growth for women. The third theme is that the current status of the international political economy is detrimental to creating an economic model for women that allows for the infrastructure necessary for building capacity for women. The fourth theme is that with the advent of micro lending in 1992 started by Professor Muhammad Yanus, the founder of "Grameen Bank" in Bangladesh, there is now a link between the empowerment of women and sustainable development. And finally the fifth theme, there is an urgent need for the basic education of girls, and a bottom up community based approach to achieve sustainable economic development for girls/women.

There are additional problems to economic development for women/girls such as "the current gender bias of development thinking and practice prevents equity and ignores women’s contribution to the economy." (Harcourt: 1994, 12) The debates on gender bias and the status of women in development have also found their audience at the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. There are international debates as well that challenge traditional approaches and raise awareness to link the environment equal in importance with development. These debates also allow the "current challenge to the development = economic growth equation and provides for a promising momentum for feminist methodology thinking and practice." (Harcourt: 1994, 13)

1. Politics and Education

The need to be aware of the political implications of providing basic education to girls is necessary as "there is a political dimension that highlights the potential for empowerment which actors may have over the definition of their roles in the teaching-learning process." (Reflections on the Potential Impact on Pedagogy and Teachers Education, 1999) In order to have an impact on the education of the girl children, it is vital that a method is found that: "1) Publicizes the plight of girls in the least developing countries 2) Educates the educators and children in the developed world on education and development issues. 3) Provides tools, resources and a framework for concrete action to effect change for the girl child. 4) Creates links from the developed to the developing world to provide education, build alliances, and the communication of ideas to promote social change. 5) Builds a cultural-social dimension that focuses on the educational web potential to open up a mosaic of voices, which might go beyond the evident boundaries of race, culture, gender and nationalities." (Reflections on the Potential Impact on Pedagogy and Teachers Education, 1999)

a. Pedagogy and the Web

The web can have an impact on pedagogy and the way that teachers bring into the classroom the complexity of the human world. The web allows the issue of educating girl children a forum that is needed to produce lasting change. At the 43rd Annual meeting in 1999 of the Comparative and International Education Society in Toronto the discussion stated that "intertwined dimensions of teachers/students interactions," occur to create dialogue and information exchange. This is vital in order to produce actions, which involves both the inter-actions of teachers and students in the developed and developing world.

i. Internet Technology

Using Internet technology as a flexible learning tool is becoming more commonplace in the western model of instruction. Its universal availability to educators and students allows it to be the perfect tool for teachers and students in the developed world. It promotes access to the issues concerning educating girl children that traditional classroom instruction does not offer. Margarete Epstein writes about model elements that can be used in a web site that is designed to support the education of the girl child in the developing world. (Epstein, 1997) There is a basis Epstein states for the education of the educators and students in the developed world through the use of the Internet on the plight of the girl child and education in the developing world.

Research suggests that computer-based technology could enhance learning and perhaps build the basis of the argument for education equals development as "four hundred and fifty ‘Meta-analyses involving technology and achievement’ that were conducted showed." (Computer-Based Technology and Learning: Evolving Uses and Expectations: 1999, 8). In a Meta-analysis that examined the impact of technology on student learning, it was found that there was "increased teacher-student interaction, cooperative learning and most important, problem solving and inquiry." (Ibid: 1999, 9) These skills are most prized by employers when looking for suitable applicants for work as documented by the California School to Career program. (California State Department of Education, 2001)

D. Summary of Girl’s Education connection to web-based site

Having multiple actors as stakeholders involved in a web-based education will allow for a stronger impetus in the implementation of a sustainable educational system that includes the girl child. The assumption is that this will be good for the local as well as for the national economy, environment and health of all people starting with the least developed countries. The equation of web-based education of children and teachers in the developed world equals development and education for girl children in the developing world needs to be better documented in order to get these multiple stakeholders involved.

A pure legal argument for the education of the girl child will not be sufficient to effect sustainable change. As Rosenau states, education is the "constant in a chaotic and turbulent post international political world." (Rosenau, 1990: 7) Education is the basis for the argument and that can be developed for educating girl children in the poorest countries and in all countries where it is needed.

The challenge still facing a education web site is to empower teachers and students in American, Canadian, British, Scottish, Irish, Australian, New Zealand, Scandinavian, and European schools where English is a second language. In order that students will write relevant research papers, contact their political leaders and establish stronger links to the Third World. Information technology on the Internet is highly motivational with high-speed links and information knowledge explosions that will provide the catalyst for learning and taking action. The desired outcome is for teachers and students of the developed world to become involved in the lives of girl children in the developing world.

Teachers and students "using technology are actively engaged in their learning and able to create their own knowledge."(National Educational Technology Standards for Students: 2000, 6) The problem of educating children about countries that are developing involves doing research into many related topics and subjects. Ideally suited as a multidisciplinary tool the Internet allows further exploration into learning about a single topic in depth. Research can mean the linking of web resources online and offline with journals, articles and books. Information from International Conventions and Conferences can also educate on the issues of girl children and development, empowerment, and education as published papers and additional information are usually posted on a web-site. With thousands of links for further study that cover the breadth and depth on other related issues concerning educating children in the global south, the Internet provides current, historical, relevant primary source information to fulfill all research needs.

1. Point by Point Outline: How Girl’s Education is connected to education web-site

• Student centered teaching through the use of Internet and collaborative learning. Providing access to research materials in all formats, written, video and audio.

• Coordination and involvement of parent-teacher associations facilitated by community based organizations and school districts for political involvement.

• Sex Stereotyping removed from curriculum and textbooks because of the multiple perspectives the web-site provides.

• National and International standards in Multicultural education can be created for the teaching of girls education. Also specific teaching based on the international legal frameworks.

• Teacher training links to encourage the teaching of girls’ education curriculum and related topics. Staff development for technology and teaching methodologies can introduce new teaching methods for collaborative learning, student centered learning focused on critical thinking problem solving for real- world problems concerning the girl children and education and development.

• More women teachers are being trained and jobs made available through Teacher Education Centers and accredited schools to develop more women to teach. This increases sensitivity to the focus of the web-site.

• Gender focus awareness training for all-i.e. HIV/AIDS through specific links. Coordination with WHO and Doctors without Borders to come in and give seminars are possible by networking over the web-site.

• Increased access to technology (Internet) with appropriate training for direct benefit of the poor and girl child. Learning girl/women connection to development by cooperation with micro lenders i.e. Grameen Bank.

• Equal Employment Opportunity legislation to set the standard on a national and international level concerning the girl child. The Internet web-site makes opportunities to take real political action.

• Scholarships can be funded by fundraising in the developed world for girls to attend University in the developing world.

• Increased access to literature, music, arts, and film to promote opportunity and awareness concerning girl education. This is available through the Internet.

• Coordination of grassroots organizing in developed world of teachers and students, Peace Corp, WHO, Grameen Bank, IMF, World Bank, Non Governmental Organization’s, UNICEF, development agencies & Non-Profit organizations, to pool resources and focus on poverty and girl education through links at web-site.

• Introduction of support of girl education through research and taking action to International, Regional, National level of organizations where men are in power. Introduce training and awareness programs based on international documents and conventions by children helping children learn.

• Democratization of the least developed countries through the leadership of the United Nations through the UNICEF link.

• Identify and reallocate funding in order to create sustainable economic and educational growth for girls by a letter campaign using sample letter templates at the web-site.

• Labor saving devices made more available to girls and women by sharing technological resources. Emphasis on environmentally friendly devices.

• Creation of an Education Development World Fund based on the model created for HIV/AIDS through networking through the web-site.

• Teacher and student exchange programs from all over the world to expand on programs that now exist between developed countries through the use of the electronic bulletin board.

• Training teachers in gender equality sensitivity is mandatory and is a follow-up feature through staff development available at the web-site.

• Parent involvement in the schools through child-parent shared learning opportunities on the web. There is a separate link devoted to parent involvement.

• Involvement’s of Multi National Corporations in the country they are investing make a contribution of a percentage of their profits to education. The community link can get the business leaders aware of the problems of the lack of education of the girl child.

• Long distance learning projects on the Internet to reach teachers to promote dialogues and exchanges.

• Education literacy training to include emotional, health, agricultural, economic, problem solving skills, and marketing and management literacy for all children primary and secondary. This is made available by the critical thinking toolkit and problem solving tools available at the web-site.

• Adult education programs for women and adolescent girls can be developed at the web-site.

• Life long learning programs for girls and women can be promoted on Internet.

• Education programs for boys for gender sensitization is badly needed. The web-site can provide the information needed

• Sex education programs designed to eliminate sexual harassment and sexual diseases. All available in related links at the web-site.

• Systems put into place to ensure girl safety from rape and sexual violence traveling to and from school. This prevents girls from attending school. The web can help promote awareness and education of community leaders to solve the problem

• Use of world media to launch public awareness campaigns targeted to the promotion of girl friendly schools. A global wide Promotion Campaign through the web-site.

• Children through the use of the Internet web-site begin sharing resources and ideas and communication between classrooms all over the world. Where there is technology in place programs that foster classroom to classroom should be emphasized.

• Development of new policy i.e. equal employment opportunity acts at the national level for girls/women promoted at the web-site.

• Involvement of children world wide through Internet.

• Encourage programs such as "Adopt a School" where one school in the West looks after a school in a developing country.

• Community centered schools where design of school incorporates the needs of the community for girl education and is used for both needs of the community, library and village meeting. Web-site can find the research to justify this approach.

• Relevant assessment to allow for the educational process to continue the Bottom Up approach for communities to take charge of changes in educational system. Links to sites to help support communities are available at the web-site.

• Increase the role of Non Government Organizations and civil society so that the resources invested are meeting poor peoples need for social, cultural and economic well being. The web-site is pooling together these organizations so educators and children have additional resources to support their learning in the real world.

• Building connections between the poor Non Governmental Organizations’ and Community and at the national level to ensure that the limited resources will be applied to do the most good. Links and other grassroots building tools at the web-site facilitate this action.

• Involve Women and girls in community decision making in an education committee based on research for the web-site.

In conclusion here are seven steps for the teacher to successfully implement teaching from the Internet web-site to the classroom. The steps are 1) Use of the web site so that classroom learning connects to the real world needs of children. 2) Use of online problem solving and critical thinking models to find real solutions to the specific needs of everyday life in the developed and developing world. 3) Technology literacy teaching based on international standards, to promote universal learning and accountability. 4) Ensuring a way to include assessment models to gauge growth so the Internet does not become a virtual vacuum of meaningless information. 5) Be flexible in the teaching methods about the demands of the social, economic, political and cultural environment and its effect on development and education. Access online and library resources as they are needed for complete learning and understanding. 6) Meeting ongoing staff development requirements for teachers along with needed additional technology staff development, in order to make connections to the real world and 7) Involvement of school learning to the home and the community in order to create larger learning connections for the child.